The Use Of Testing For Doping Controls Using A Quadrupole...

Analysis of Prohibited Drugs in Blood for Doping Controls using a Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer 1-Introduction 1.1-Use of prohibited drugs in competitive sports 1.2-Commonly tested analytes for doping control 1.3-Techniques employed 2-Sampling 2.1-Sample preparation 3-Experimental Techniques 3.1-LC/MS 3.2-LC/TMS 4-Latest Advancements in the field 4.1-Sensitivity 4.2-Accuracy 4.3-Automation 5-Conclusion 6-References Figures and Tables Fig: 1 Fig: 2 Fig: 3 Fig: 4 Table: 1 Table: 2 ABSTRACT The use of performance enhancers and prohibited drugs in sports goes back as far as the year 1889 when Pud Galvin a Pittsburgh’s baseball pitcher used performance enhancer before pitching in a game against Boston. Pud used something called â€Å"Elixir of Brown Sequard† containing mostly testosterone drained from the gonads of an animal. The use of performance enhancers may seem natural in terms of gaining an edge in a competition but the attached strings may far outweigh its advantages. Mostly the short-term benefits of gaining advantage are associated with the long-term health risks of the athlete. The attached health vulnerability of the athletes underpins the need of strict regularization code for performance enhancers through robust, precise and accurate analytical techniques. We will discuss and compare various analytical challenges encountered during doping control analysis in this report. Sampling is the first to start with. A good sampling

The Story Of Jack Face - 1389 Words

I It’d been years since I’d seen Jack face-to-face. The past seven decades had not been kind to him, it would seem. When I reunited with him on the docks, mere minutes before our departure for Sudan, I hardly recognized him. His features were haggard, his once-pride worn away by decades of solitude. His cheeks were sallow, his pale brow knitted together in an expression of mournful contemplation. His hair was but a withered shadow of the long, fiery glory it had once been. Tainted with streaks of silver and grey, it was hard to call it red any longer. His tired eyes reflected a near-incomprehensible level of self-doubt and uncertainty. The assured complacency and blaze of enthusiasm that had once burned bright in them was gone,†¦show more content†¦Neither of us deigned to eat the meal. The captain laughed tauntingly. â€Å"Don’t like it, eh? Well, you’d better get used to it. Where you’re going you’ll be lucky to get this much!† I’d marked his words as a joke at the time, but in looking back, he’d only spoken the truth. The people here in Sudan went without a good meal on a regular basis, and not because they wanted to, either. It reminded me of the days on the island, of the days of living off of raw pig flesh and sour fruits. The meat had been a privilege then, but in hindsight it would seem more a curse. It made the days without that much more unbearable, until we found our lives revolved around the continuing cycle of hunting and feasting, with little time in between for minor civilities, like shelter or rules or the fire for rescue. As we spend the last of our days here in Sudan, I see over again the same unfortunate events that occurred those fateful months. II The first of Sudan’s problems had formed right from the start; as a divided nation, it was destined for centuries of strife and civil war, although in retrospect it was most certainly uncivil. The sins committed in Sudan during those dark days number to be around eight out of eleven crimes against humanity. Similarly did we too err during our troubled times, and I mentioned as much to Jack. â€Å"It is inborn,† he said after some consideration. â€Å"We do our best to hide it, but without any civilities set forth it is hardShow MoreRelatedLiterary Analysis Of The Bride Comes Flies 1117 Words   |  5 Pagesexpansion of the East. Stephen Crane s The Bride Come to Yellow Sky Jack Potter, the town marshal and his new bride are returning back to Yellow Sky, Texas from San Antonio, Texas on a train. To Jack s surprise, Scratchy Wilson, the town drunk is waiting for him for a gun fight. Jack and his new bride try to make it home without anyone noticing in town, but they come face to face with Scratchy. Scratchy is taken back by Jack s unpreparedness and his newly marry status, and Scratchy forgoes theRead MoreDiscussion of the Situational and Developmental Views in a Scene from Titanic1687 Words   |  7 Pagesthe day after Jack sees Rose hanging off the edge of the ship while she debates whether she should jump or not. Jack convinces her not to jump, and she agre es. But, her foot slips and Jack saves her. Her fiancà © comes running to see what happened but Rose makes up a story about how she fell over trying to see the propellers. Jack remains silent and goes with the story. This particular scene takes place the day after. Jack and Rose are taking a walk around the ship as Rose thanks Jack for saving herRead MoreLord of the Flies Critical Analysis Essay767 Words   |  4 Pagesperson to become barbaric. 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The first body paragraph will focus on how symbolism progresses a story whether the power it holds is for good or evil. The second body paragraph willRead MoreLord Of The Flies By William Golding947 Words   |  4 Pagesultimately bring the group down. In the novel, Lord of the Flies, William Golding tells the story of a group of boys on an island left alone to survive without adult supervision after their plane crashed. The boys quickly elected Ralph to be the leader and Ralph appointed Jack to be the leader of the hunters. After a while, various accidents caused a power struggle between Jack and Ralph, which leads to Jack overthrowing Ralph in a coup. In the novel, the boys needed a leader that could help them stayRead MoreThe Film Titanic Was Directed And Co Edited By James Cameron1575 Words   |  7 PagesTitanic is currently tied in holding the record for the film with the most nominated and received Academy Awards. The movie was awarded Best Editing, Best Picture, Best Cinematography, Best Costume Design, and Best Sound. Cameron’s movie tells the story of an epic romance filled with passion and disaster between two lovers that come from different lifestyles. The movie follows their account from when they meet, and ultimately say goodbye on the magnificent ship the Titanic, which was said to be unsinkableRead MoreLord Of The Flies Literary Analysis1406 Words   |  6 Pages Although many things are stated outright in William Golding’s Lord of the Flies, the book is rich with symbolism and subtext. The story starts with British school boys being stranded on an island after escaping a threat of nuclear war. The boys elect fair-haired Ralph as their leader, but Jack, a fiery choirmaster of some of the boys, is jealous and the story quickly goes downhill from there, leading to aggression, mayhem, and murder. Throughout the novel, there is also a mysterious and imaginaryRead MoreThe Lord Of The Flies1262 Words   |  6 Pagesthis story these evils were for once boldly stated for all to understand. The games the boys play,the fire they set, and their rescue, in the Lord of the flies shows the theme that evil is inside every man. In many instances in the book the boys show the true evils of themselves. Greed, Cruelty, and Irony is key to the entire story. Greed is a huge flaw within some of the characters in Lord of the Flies and Jack, I would say is the biggest culprit of greed. Time and time again in the story he reflectedRead MoreThe Symbolism of Masks in Lord of the Flies by William Golding848 Words   |  4 Pagesgreen, blue, colors that surround us everyday, yet somehow the human fascination of applying them to their face makes them seem all the more fun, and interesting. This newfound interest could even leak through to the mind beneath, giving way to a whole new person. In his 1954 novel, Lord of the Flies, William Golding illustrated this idea in a way that captured the hearts of many and led the story to fame, concocting a reality that had since resided only in the nightmares of children. Inventing a worldRead MoreCharlotte Bronte s Charlotte Linden 1447 Words   |  6 Pagesbut she shared them with all of her classmates. Mr. Linden, Charlotte’s father, had always adored her wild imagination, but he knew that some of the stories were too magical and real for her to read. He knew that something might happen that would turn her life around if she was to read one of them, but even he couldn’t help but read to her about Jack and his magic beanstalk ever since she was very little. On August twenty-third, Charlotte had just finished getting ready for bed when she laid down

Bigger and Stronger free essay sample

â€Å"One day you’ll be bigger and stronger than him,† says my father as I struggle to squeeze my head out of my brother’s clenching grip. That’s what you always say, I think as I feel the blood circulating back into my brain. Austin, my brother, wrestles heavyweight, plays offensive line, and is a catcher and I’m certain the one day my father speaks of will not arrive. So I glance at my father and ask â€Å"when?† He walks to the entrance of the pantry and studies the frame of the door. Searching through the scribbled names and lines, he stumbles upon Austin’s most recent mark. He points to it and calls me over. As I near, the name beside his finger reads â€Å"Austin-10/2011.† My brother is a 6’1†, 250 pound eleventh grader; I am a 5’10†, 160 pound ninth grader. My dad, three inches taller than Austin, provides hope of surpassing Austin’s height. We will write a custom essay sample on Bigger and Stronger or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page â€Å"But he’s way bigger than me,† I say. How on Earth am I going to be bigger than him? But my dad says â€Å"You are still growing, you know?† I nod my head and imagine the day occurring. After a pause in the action, Austin clutches my wrist and drags my squirming body to the living room, where he can work his prey. He shoots for my left ankle and with a slight lift, I plummet to the carpet. Without a lost second he jumps onto my fallen body and remains in control. Despite our father’s commands to release me, he contorts my body as if it’s a lifeless dummy. The pain escalates as I grimace and grunt disapprovingly of the unimaginable maneuvers my brother executed. I tap out. I am once again reassured that the one day is unlikely to happen. The lost hope allows me time to analyze my dad’s phrase, â€Å"one day you’ll be bigger and stronger than him.† Being bigger is unattainable, so I’m left to be stronger. Stronger has two meanings: physical and mental. Austin’s clear physical dominance has forced me to become mentally tougher. Next time, I will not tap out. I will not surrender. I will succeed. I’ve finished one half of the puzzle and my upcoming years in Madison will allow me to finish the rest. After all, I am still growing.

Mrs.Dalloway Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example

Mrs.Dalloway Rhetorical Analysis Essay Throughout the novel, Wolf employs chromatic imagery whilst describing the advancing society of modern London, portraying the lively mood of its citizens . During World War l, England faces a very dark time in its history. However after Armistice D ay, England goes through a very joyous time period full of life and technological advances. Woo Ifs chromatic imagery includes the recurring image of the red 5), as well as ma NY other color, including white, violet, red, deep orange(1 5), to describe the flowers of the SST ore that Claries sited in the beginning of the book. Later, Wolf employs a plethora of silver images to accentuate Calamaris home, along with Calamaris green dress and yellow ha t to accentuate her style. With all of these colors brightening up Calamaris life, the read easily assumes that Claries lives a joyous life brought on by her affluent life. Law 2 Ironically enough, Calamaris apparently vivid life actually possesses a very gloom my side as expressed in Calamaris gloomy tone. While Claries walks through her lively neighborhood to go buy her beautiful flowers, dark thoughts cloud her mind. She realizes her I joss of identity brought upon by her marriage which will result in her being Mrs.. Daylong; n tot even Claries any more; being Mrs.. Richard Daylong. (1 1) Instead of being happy that Clara as married an affluent man in her community, she seems to regret her decision. As the story progresses, Claries reveals that she fears she married Richard to achieve financial stability y, not her own happiness. This decision focuses on the modernist obsession to marry for fin uncial reasons instead of personal desires. We will write a custom essay sample on Mrs.Dalloway Rhetorical Analysis specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Mrs.Dalloway Rhetorical Analysis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Mrs.Dalloway Rhetorical Analysis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Calamaris relationship with her daughter Elizabeth also faces corruption in the modern era. For a part of the book Elizabeth spends a lot of time with her history teacher, Mrs.. Kalmia, who dislikes Claries. This relationship between Claries and Kalmia places a strain on Calamaris relationship with Elizabeth. In addition, Claw risks continuously searches for a deeper meaning in her life; an answer she feels try Lully empty without. Claries worries that her materialistic desires and her obsession with mundane e things such as parties and appearances corrupt her life. So Calamaris intimate relationships tit her husband and daughter fragment in the midst of the modernist characteristics. Virginia Wolf employs a very unique writing style in Mrs.. Daylong by telling the story mainly through inner monologues. This writing style mixes true dialogue bet en characters and the inner dialogue with themselves, revealing the difference between what the e characters say and what the characters think. In many parts of the book, this creates a very strand GE situation. For example, when Peter and Claries first encounter in the book, Peter tells Clara as about his new eve but at the same time he thinks about how much he loves Claries. Like WI SE, Claries Law 3 discusses her happy new life with Richard, but later on second guesses her De concision to reject Peter. If the two simply spoke their minds, then they would not face such tragic c situations. Also, later in the book Richard wants to tell Claries how much he loves her, but he does not. Again, the reader knows how Richard feels, but Claries does not. Finally Septum s peaks nonsense throughout the novel, but he keeps a lot of what he wants to say trapped in hi s mind. If Lucrative longingly listens to Septum instead of claiming insanity, their relationship woo old blossom. Instead, Septum bottles up his emotions until he tragically ends his life. This further exemplifies the fragmentation of relationships during the modern era. Relation unships survive when partners can communicate, but due to the Modern eras Obsession with saving time, people create less intimate relationships with people since they do not spend as much h time getting to know each other. This emotional distance creates communication problems h arming the damaged relationship even further. Instead of splitting her novel into chapters, Virginia Wolf lets Mrs.. Daylong flow freely, just as a day does. However, she does split the day up into different it me periods usually signified by a bell or a clock. In the beginning of the novel, Big Ben strikes. (4) signifying the the time, and as the story progresses, more clocks remind the characters of t he time. This constant ringing throughout the story not only states the time, but it reminds the characters that time moves on. As they all worry about their appearances and their parties an d their relationships ND their hats, time continues to move forward. The ringing bell reminds the m of their mortality, awakening the mot do what they must do. It also brings them out of the state of reminiscing on memories and it reminds them to focus on the present instead of the past. D ruing the modern times, people advance so they can save time. Time becomes a valuable com oddity to people; so Law 4 valuable that they forget to spend time appreciating nature and appreciating people in their lives. The modernist obsession with time brought about the ultimate fragmentation f intimacy, because suddenly people did not have time to waste on other people. As humans advance, they begin to lose their connection with their fellow man . As they obsess over doing things quickly for themselves, they forget to spend time to gather. As they begin to fear what people may think of them, they avoid speaking their minds . As humans cease factories communications with each other, they begin to separate complete y. If people fail to create relationships with each other, then they will never create a relationship with his or herself.

A Perfect Research Paper Introduction

A Perfect Research Paper Introduction A Perfect Research Paper Introduction Introduction is always an important part of a written assignment, as it presents thoughts to the reader and allows making up his mind whether to go on further. Moreover, it is very important if you are completing a research paper, as it may contain complex information and the topic may seem difficult to understand. In such cases, your introduction will serve as an outline and contain information about the research itself. Unfortunately, many students find it difficult to limit the whole paper to a couple paragraphs and don’t know where to start. Following our simple tips and advice will definitely help you to complete an introduction without any efforts. Give information on the topic It is not a secret that every introduction should start with an engaging and interesting overview of the topic, as the readers should know what to expect. That is why the best way to start your introduction is to state the topic. You should also need to add various matters on the subject and state your personal opinion. It will definitely be intriguing and make the audience to go on reading. The advice here is very simple: begin with a general information on the topic and then narrow it to several aspects, which you want to highlight. This section doesn’t require a deep analysis of the subject but you still shouldn’t sound shallow. If your topic is complicated and contains terms that are difficult to comprehend, try to explain it in simple words not to bore the audience. Provide a literature overview Any research paper should be based on credible and relevant sources, so you need to make a thorough research and analyze only trustful literature. Every introduction should contain a brief overview of the literature, used during your studies. In addition, you can include quotes of various authors or philosophers to back your ideas and support your point of view. Provide the background When you start your research paper, you need to provide the rationale, which can be a perfect way to show your attitude to the subject and give readers a chance to ponder on the subject. Such background allows to reveal information on the topic and prove that your research is important for the society or the field of science. Provide a catchy thesis Your thesis statement links introduction conclusions and body paragraphs, so you need to be very attentive and thoughtful, when completing this section. Remember that your thesis should contain general information on the whole work and engage your views on the subject to help the audience to understand your ideas. It can be called the business card of your whole work, so don’t forget to include general information on the subject and reflect all the important issues. In addition, remember to stay clear and engaging to catch interest of the readers. Don’t forget about the outline When you have almost completed your introduction, it is time to provide the structure of the whole work. Not every professor requires to include an outline to your introduction but you still need to be ready for such a demand. In this case, you need to write a short paragraph, which contains three or four sentences about the main goal and content of the whole research paper. If you lack ideas, you can find introduction examples online to get fresh ideas. Require assistance? If you follow all the instructions, writing a proper introduction for your research paper may not seem challenging at all. However, even the best students may face various complications and it is very difficult to choose a proper topic and deliver everything on time. That is why they often wonder how to make introduction perfect and avoid sleepless nights and lots of stress. There is a great way out, which won’t require much of your time and efforts: contacting a professional writing company. With the assistance of professional writers, you won’t have to spend long hours, looking for a proper introduction online or trying to complete it on your own. So if you ask us ‘can you complete my research paper?’ we will definitely say ‘yes’! Our skilled writers will provide your with a written from scratch content and you will always be sure that it will contain all of your requirements. Moreover, you will always meet the deadlines, avoiding stress and anxiety. If you still have doubts, just make a request and see yourself how simple and fun your student years can be!

Geography of the Tropic of Capricorn

Geography of the Tropic of Capricorn The Tropic of Capricorn is an imaginary line of latitude going around the Earth at approximately 23.5 ° south of the equator. It is the southernmost point on Earth where the suns rays can be directly overhead at local noon. It is also one of the five major circles of latitude dividing the Earth (the others are the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere, the equator, the Arctic Circle and the Antarctic Circle). Geography  of the Tropic of Capricorn The Tropic of Capricorn is significant to understanding the Earths geography because it marks the southern boundary of tropics. This is the region that extends from the equator south to the Tropic of Capricorn and north to the Tropic of Cancer. Unlike the Tropic of Cancer, which passes through many areas of land in the northern hemisphere, the Tropic of Capricorn passes mainly through water because there is less land for it to cross in the southern hemisphere. However, it does cross through or is near places like Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, Madagascar, and Australia. Naming of the Tropic of Capricorn Around 2,000 years ago, the sun crossed into the constellation of Capricorn at the winter solstice around December 21. This resulted in this line of latitude being named the Tropic of Capricorn. The name Capricorn itself comes from the Latin word caper, meaning goat and was the name given to the constellation. This was then later transferred to the Tropic of Capricorn. It should be noted, however, that because it was named over 2,000 years ago, the specific location of the Tropic of Capricorn today is no longer in the constellation Capricorn. Instead, it is located in the constellation Sagittarius. Significance of the Tropic of Capricorn In addition to being used to aid in dividing the Earth into different parts and marking the southern boundary of the tropics, the Tropic of Capricorn, like the Tropic of Cancer is also significant to the Earths amount of solar insolation and the creation of seasons. Solar insolation is the amount of Earths direct exposure to the suns rays from incoming solar radiation. It varies over the Earths surface based on the amount of direct sunlight hitting the surface and it is mostly when it is directly overhead at the subsolar point which migrates annually between the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer based on the Earths axial tilt. When the subsolar point is at the Tropic of Capricorn, it is during the December or winter solstice and is when the southern hemisphere receives the most solar insolation. Thus, it is also when the southern hemispheres summer begins. Furthermore, this is also when the areas at latitudes higher than the Antarctic Circle receive 24 hours of daylight because there is more solar radiation to be deflected south due to the Earths axial tilt.

Spanish-American War Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Spanish-American War - Research Paper Example The war went smoothly for the Americans and proved devastating for the Spanish, which suffered defeat continuously. Although several drawbacks have been observed in the American military preparedness for this war, the same has been classified as â€Å"splendid war of short duration† by historians, even from outside America. Historian Harry Allen has described this event as â€Å"America’s swift and total defeat of Spain†(1). Due to lack of coordination between different wings of American defense forces, rivalry was visible between sailors and soldiers, while the war resulted in the charges of imperialism being levied against America, which still haunts the people of Cuba and Philippines. Michael Quinn, the author of this article has detailed the impact of this war on West Americans. According to Mormon theology, the church had a right to choose for participating or non-participating in an armed conflict, which the author refers as â€Å"selective Pacifism’. While Mormon Church lost its political and social power with the abolition of polygamy by the federal government in 1890, the option of selective pacifism became inapplicable in 1989, as a result of internal conflict within the Mormon Church on the participation issue. While â€Å"book of Mormon† has the evidences of pacifism, the internal conflict has been visible with one group refusing to participate in such defensive wars, based on religious and spiritual reasons.(1) Joseph Smith Jr discussed the theological aspects of pacifism, while proposing three essentials, which concern the Mormon participation in a war. These included the participating decision to be independent of secular government options, the Divine injunctions of war and peace being conveyed through a Mormon prophet, instead of any secular leader and the commands of the prophet to be given due respect in deciding on issues

Hills Like White Elephants Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Hills Like White Elephants - Essay Example She is depicted as a loving and sympathetic woman in contrast to her boyfriend who is indifferent and unsympathetic fellow afraid of possible changes in his life. He is brutal and heartless which hurt feelings of the girl. It seems that the girl alternates between two moods of happiness and despair, states of activity, optimism, and power and passive states of contemplation and despondency. Jig comments; "And we could have all this," she said. "And we could have everything and every day we make it more impossible" (Hemingway). Hemingway gives some hints to readers that her boyfriend is totally indifferent to his unborn child and his destiny. "I know you wouldn't mind it, Jig. It's really not anything" (Hemingway). Hemingway depicts differences in world views and the importance of family for both characters. The boyfriend tries to persuade Jig to have an abortion which is "an awfully simple operation" "It's not really an operation at all." (Hemingway). To some extent, these remarks are offensive and insulting portraying that the man sees Jig as a light-minded creature unable to take care of her life and their unborn child.

Blake is the enemy of all authority(TM) Essay Example for Free

Blake is the enemy of all authority(TM) Essay Blakes poetry often serves to propagate his anti-authoritarian views and loathing of institutional power. Furthermore, his views often impress upon the reader his belief in the human right for both spiritual and social freedom, unconstrained by established convention. Blakes treatment of the institution of the church and religion is often contemptuous and shows his attitude to what he sees as the hypocrisy of an uncompromising establishment which in his eyes causes misery, rather than nurturing the human sole. In The Garden of Love Blake conveys his anti-clerical message in the stanza the gates of this chapel were shut and reflects his view of the church as exclusionary. Moreover, the shut gates imply that the path to heaven and God does not start at the foot of the alter, but in individual belief and spirituality. The idea is further reinforced in the poem by the image of priests binding with briars my joys and desires and thereby placing the priests in the position of Christs oppressors, making them seem malevolent in robbing people of their natural joyful impulse. The alliteration and assonance within the binding with briars further reinforces the idea of a cruel path to supposed salvation. The Marriage of Heaven and Hell challenges traditional Christian theology and makes the statement that Prisons are built with stones of Law, Brothels with bricks of Religion, this conveys his belief that whilst society may restrain immorality, religion can create it. The prisons built with stones of law also symbolise how traditional doctrinal teaching has imprisoned personal individuality. Furthermore Good is the passive which obeys reason. Evil is the active springing from energy epitomises the teaching of the Church of Blakes time and is contrary to the sentiments of most contemporary readers in an age prizing individuality and condemnatory of passive indolence. The Marriage of Heaven and Hell was composed after the 1789 French Revolution and in a period of radical ideological and political conflict, therefore Blakes condemnation of apathy is aimed to promulgate his vision of anarchic energy free from the restrain of authority. Reason is the bound or outward circumference of energy suggests that living purely through ones intellect is what constrains boundless energy, which to him is eternal delight. So in this respect it is evident that the traditional authority given to rationality is seen as preventative to living life to its full as the restrainer or reason governs the unwilling. This indicates Blakes view that the natural human instinct is to oppose reason and that to act according to reason is tantamount to acting under duress, in the mistaken belief that to oppose reason is to go against the Good [which] is the passive that obeys reason. In the poem The school Boy Blake condemns school- an institution which tries to teach reason as restricting the childs vivacity in his natural environment. How can the bird that is born for joy sit in a cage and sing? is a metaphor for human imprisonment to show that the environment of the classroom cannot cultivate the unrestrained and joyful energy which Blake reveres. This is in contrast to the sky-lark [which] sings with the boy when he rise[s] in a summer morn When the birds sing on every tree. This illustrates the bucolic setting, filled with aural imagery and how joy prevails in the boundless confines of nature. The repression of man-created institutions such as school can be contrasted to the freedom provided by nature, where arguably God is the only authority. The nurses song centres on the liberating environment of nature where the voices of children are heard on the green and laughing is heard on the hill. This evokes the abundance of delight created by Gods creation of the natural world and how in Blakes time the idyllic countryside of England was yet largely unspoiled by large, polluting manufacturers seeking profit maximisation. The laughing of the children in The Nurses Song almost becomes as natural as the song of the little birds and shows that in such pastoral surroundings the childrens freedom is boundless just as that of the birds. However, this freedom is circumscribed by the watchful nurse in The Nurses Song in Songs of Experience who reprimands the children saying your spring and your day are wasted in play and in contrast to the well intentioned protection of the children in the first Nurses Song, this poem presages the eventual loss of the childrens natural freedom. However, Blake does not oppose parental authority arising from love, that is in the best interests of the child. Whilst he may rightfully condemn the parents in The Chimney Sweeper (experience) who clothed [their child] in the clothes of death And taught [him] to sing the notes of woe, this is because they are uncaring and hostile to their childs happiness that is anathema to them. Consequently, their authority is destructive and oppressive. But, Blake does not condemn the guiding role of the mother in The Little Black Boy, who taught [him] underneath a tree, as her teaching is not institutionalised and rigidly doctrinal, but done outdoors in the natural environment that Blake so venerates. Moreover, at a time when slavery was still legal in England and the general perception of other races was of a racist sort, Blakes portrayal of the boy and his mother in an affectionate manner, devoid of savagery would have challenged the notions of his day. In another radical step away from the customs of his time the introduction to Songs of Innocence gives authority to the child, to which the piper assents. Pipe a song about a lamb. / So I piped with merry cheer paints the child was the origin of creativity and beautiful, with the piper as his instrument. The reference to the lamb suggests that the child has a moral and spiritual purpose and that his youthful innocence makes him more adept than the piper to whom he shoes how to convey the message through song. However the transience of the childs authority is conveyed in the words so he vanished from my sight which re-establishes the reality of Blakes time when children were powerless to resist the demands of their elders and could not dictate their own wishes or destinies. Blakes focus on authority is intended to make a social and political statement about the customs of his day. Arguably, he does not oppose all authority but merely the kind arising from self-interest and requiring the sacrifice of fellow human beings. His poetry advocates individuality and unrestrained vivacity for life rare for his time and fundamentally preaches unbridled equality.

Peace of Westphalia :: Ancient Rome Roman History

Peace of Westphalia The two treaties of Mà ¼nster and Osnabrà ¼ck, commonly known as the Peace of Westphalia, was the culminating element for the Holy Roman Empire in the Thirty Years' War. It established a final religious settlement and provided for new political boundaries for the German states of central Europe. The impact of the Peace of Westphalia was broad and long-standing, as it dictated the future of Germany and ex-territories of the Holy Roman Empire for some time to come. The Peace of Westphalia put down the Counter Reformation in Germany and instituted the final religious arrangement the German states had been crying for. It renewed the terms of the Peace of Augsburg, namely that each state of the Empire received the liberty to be either Lutheran or Catholic as it chose; no individual freedom of religion was permitted. If a ruler or a free city decided for Lutheranism, then all persons had to be Lutheran. Similarly in Catholic states all had to be Catholic. In addition to re-instituting the Peace of Augsburg in its traditional form, the Peace of Westphalia included Calvinism to Lutheranism and Catholicism as an acceptable faith. On the controversial issue of church territories secularized after 1552 the Protestants won a complete victory. With the advent of the Peace of Westphalia, the squabbling between Protestants and Catholics was finally put an end to. The Holy Roman Empire was officially dissolved with the Peace of Westphalia. This had been advanced with the drawing of internal religious frontiers in the days of Luther, although now it was confirmed. Borderlands of the Empire fell away. The Dutch and Swiss established themselves as independent, as did the United Provinces. The western frontier of the Empire was carved up among France, Sweden and the Dutch. France took control over three Lorraine bishoprics which they had occupied for a century. The Swedes received the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden and the western half of Pomerania, including the city of Stettin. Sweden enlarged its trans-Baltic possessions, and in addition claimed the mouths of the Oder, Elbe, and Weser rivers in Germany. The Dutch obtained only the mouths of the Rhine and the Scheldt. On the interior front of the Empire, both Brandenburg and Bavaria increased their statures. Brandenburg lay claim to eastern Pomerania, the large archbishopric of Magdeburg, and t wo smaller bishoprics. Bavaria received control of the Palatinate and a seat in the electoral college, increasing the Empire's electors to eight.

Lifelong Learning Essay

It is important for educators to understand special education and how the diagnosis of developmental disabilities, early intervention, educational programs, services for young learners, transitional programs, strengths and weaknesses in assessments and interventions affects their students and classroom environment, while also being able to offer suggestions for student improvement and expected performance. People learn for a lifetime so special education needs to start as early as possible for all children that need it and continue on through their high school years. The learning process is not just about academic learning for special education students, but is also about learning social, emotional, and self-care skills. There is much to learn and it all begins with diagnosis. Diagnosis of Developmental Disabilities Developmental monitoring occurs from the time a child is born through well-child visits with a health professional. There are five areas of development that can be affected and these are what health professional are monitoring: â€Å"cognitive development, physical development (including vision and hearing), communication development, social or emotional development, and adaptive development (Overview of Early Intervention, 2012)†. If any problems are noticed during monitoring, then the child is further assessed through developmental screening. Screening allows health professionals to monitor a child’s progress more closely and determine how their development relates to the general population of children at the same developmental stages. The hope with all well-child visits to prove a child is in perfect physical, mental, and emotional health and if they are not, then the process helps parents and health professional to intervene early. Early Intervention â€Å"Early intervention is a system of services that helps babies and toddlers with developmental delays or disabilities (Overview of Early Intervention, 2012)†, which has been proven to significantly improve a child’s chances of success in all developmental areas. For children with developmental delay of disabilities, early intervention can help them develop their physical, cognitive, communication, social, and self-care skills extensively. There are many services that can help develop these skills, such as speech therapies, assistive devices, physical therapies, and many more. Once children reach school age, they may then be placed in special education programs within their selected school system where they will continue the learning process. Educational Programs Once children enter the educational system, IDEA requires schools to provide the necessary tools and support staff to ensure that each student can achieve a free education. This may require something as simple as an assistive device, such as an iPad or computer to use to communicate, or could require more direct assistance, such as an aid to provide one-on-one assistance. Parents, teachers, and other support staff work together to create an IEP for each student. The IEP lays out the plan for each individual student and also includes what that students areas of developmental delay or disability are so schools can appropriately assist the student. Then once the IEP is established, it can then be decided what educational program that the student should be involved in. There are a few different educational programs: 1) strictly special education, which does not include any general education classes, 2) semi-special education, which includes a combination of general and special education classes, and 3) all general education classes, which is intended for those students that require special education, but do not necessarily need to be a part of a special education classroom. Strictly special education situations would be for students that are not capable of actively participating in a general classroom setting. Semi-special education programs are for students that are able to actively participate in a general education classroom, but may only need extra help in certain areas. One example could be in Math and Science, where a student  significantly struggles, but they achieve well in other areas such as Related Arts classes. Some students only need a little help and do well in a general education classroom, but still need to be involved in the special education program in certain facets in order to follow an IEP to ensure their needs are being met and that they are achieving well in school. Services for Young Exceptional Learners Another group of children, often included in the special education program, are those that are gifted, or considered exceptional learners. Although gifted children are often very intelligent, they can struggle with other areas that can affect their education and social development. These students should be offered services to help them reach their true potential. Quite often, gifted students just need focus, which can be achieved through services that help them learn how to develop their skills, interests, and intellectual capacities. (Beckley, 1998) Nurturing students with positive reinforcements, while provided adequate challenge in their stronger areas, can help ensure their ultimate success. It is important to not just throw gifted students into special education because their skills are not seen, but rather to work at understanding the student so that their intellect can blossom and their weaknesses improved or managed. Transitional Programs Children continue through the education program until they complete high school. This can be up through age 22 for some students. At age 16, or before then for some students, IDEA mandates that students begin an Individualized Transition Plan (ITP) as part of their IEP. â€Å"Transition services are intended to prepare students to move from the world of school to the world of adulthood (Transition to Adulthood, 2010).† Just like the IEP, transition service for students must be coordinated between parents, teachers, support staff, and at this age also includes the student. Transition is intended to help students not only achieve academic goals, but also to aid in developing a student’s self-care and independent living skills. In addition, it also aids in determining their interests so that they can interact in their community, begin college or other post high school education, or obtain employment. If transition is successful, then students should be able to adequately a dapt to their new circumstances and  environment after completing high school. Assessments Assessments and interventions can be extremely beneficial to the well-being of a child with developmental delays or disabilities. Assessments by parents, health care professionals, and educators help to identify potential delays or disabilities early so that the child can receive services to help them manage or overcome them. Intervention programs provide the resources necessary for children to receive the services they are entitled to. Unfortunately, assessments and intervention are only as good as the support around the student. Parents must take their child to well-child checks for health professional to be able to identify an issue. Once an issue is determined, intervention can begin and involves parents, educators, healthcare professionals, and other support personnel. It is important for all parties in the support staff to work together and keep in communication about the needs of the child. The support system surrounding a special needs child can be their strongest resource or their weakness. It is up to parents to ensure that their child is getting the best treatments and services available to meet their needs and ensure their child’s success. Improvement Suggestions Improvements in assessment and intervention begins with parents. Parents need to be thoroughly educated on the needs of their child. Knowledge is power and the more the parents have, then the more they will be equipped to work with the child’s other support personnel. Doctors and teachers needs to help parents understand the needs of their child and how all the various programs and processes can help their child succeed. Improvement stems primarily around a cohesive unit of well-educated or well informed support group surrounding the child. Expected Outcomes As parents, students, educators, and health professionals come together to form a cohesive support group, involving great communication, then the child can benefit by overcoming or improving their delay or disability. As more is learned about developmental disabilities, the brighter the future looks for all those that are challenged by such disabilities. Early intervention and appropriate support gives special needs children the chance to reach their dreams. References Beckley, D. (1998). Gifted and Learning Disabled: Twice Exceptional Students. Retrieved from Neag Center for Gifted Education and Talent Development: http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/nrcgt/newsletter/spring98/sprng984.html Overview of Early Intervention. (2012, December). Retrieved from National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities: http://nichcy.org/babies/overview#what Transition to Adulthood. (2010, September). Retrieved from National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities: http://nichcy.org/schoolage/transitionadult

academic communication

IntroductionThis is about academic communicating procedure theoretical account and its constituents ; how they would breakdown into three different phases and stairss to avoid them. Communication is the most of import portion of our life. We begin to larn some of the accomplishments of communicating before we are born, and most of us will go on to utilize them until the twenty-four hours we die. We communicate with friends, household, workplace ; we may pass on indirectly: we watch films, and listen to music. These are all communicating procedure in different phases. We will discourse about it in this assignment. Harmonizing to Weick and Browning ( 1986 ) , communicating is the procedure of conveying information from one individual to another. Gerbner ( 1967 ) adds that communicating may be defined as societal interaction through messages. Another bookman Theodorson ( 1969 ) defines communicating as the transmittal of information, thoughts, attitudes, or emotion from one individual or group to another chiefly through symbols. Osgood et Al ( 1957 ) besides remarks that we have communication wherever one system, a beginning, influences another, the finish, by use of alternate symbols, which can be transmitted over the channel linking them. On the footing of above definitions, communicating is the sharing information between two or more people to make a common apprehension. However, making a common apprehension does non intend that people have to hold with each other. They should hold an accurate thought of what a individual or group is seeking to state them. Communication is besides a procedure, and like most procedures it can be usefully modelled. Gathering a theoretical account frequently helps in believing about and understanding procedures and systems. The basic communicating procedure starts when the transmitter formulates an thought or thinks of something to state. The thought is so encoded or transformed into meaningful symbols. Turning the formulated ideas into spoken or written words constitutes encoding. Thought and thoughts have to be in some signifier of codification to organize catching messages. These encoded messages are so transmitted via voice, missive, electronic mail, telephone or some other channel to the receiving system. Geting the message from the transmitter to the receiving system is really of import, unless the communicating goes from one individual to another there is no communicating. Messages transmit via a channel. Channel refers to the peculiar engineering or method used to acquire the message to the receiving system. Major communicating channels are letters, e-mail, face-to-face conversation, telephone, facsimile, newspapers, booklets, movie, picture, wireless, telecasting, web sites and postings. Then the receiving system decodes the message – interprets the message, and gives feedback to the transmitter. Feedback helps both transmitter and receiving system determine the lucidity of the message. Feedback is a response from the receiving system. With feedback, the procedure becomes a conversation or bipartisan communicating.Beginning: adapted from Himstreet, Baty and Lehman ( 1993 ) .However, a major progress in communicating theory came with Claude Shannon ‘s 1949 publication of his mathematical theory of communicating. He and other information theoreticians at the Bell Telephone Laboratories were concerned with the procedure of reassigning signals accurately from transmitter to receiver. Their concern was non with words or word significances but with coded stuff sent from one machine to another – from a orbiter to earth or from one computing machine to another. Shannon ‘s communicating theoretical account was critical for communicating research as Johnson and Klare ( 1961 ) say in their reappraisal of communicating theoretical accounts: â€Å"Of all individual parts to the widespread involvement in theoretical accounts today, Shannon ‘s is the most of import. For the proficient side of communicating research, Shannon ‘s mathematical preparations were the stimulation to much of the ulterior attempt in this area.†Beginning: adopted from Shannon and Weaver ( 1949 ) .Shannon and Weaver ‘s ‘mathematical theoretical account ‘ describes communicating as a additive, one-way procedure. Harmonizing to Shannon ( 1949 ) , communicating procedure consists of basically five constituents: 1. An information beginning which produces a message or sequences of messages to be communicated to the having terminus. The message may be assorted types such as a sequence of letters as in a telegraph or teletype system ; a individual map of clip. A message is composed of a set of symbols. These symbols can be verbal or gestural. Verbal symbols are words used when talking or composing. Letterss, memorandas, studies, booklets, catalogues, manuals, and one-year studies are composed of verbal symbols. These symbols are besides used when talking face-to-face or on the telephone, take parting in a conference or meeting, or presenting a address. Gestural symbols such as gestures, position, facial looks, visual aspect, and clip, tone of voice, oculus contact, and infinite ever accompany verbal symbols. All messages contain gestural symbols that help the receiving system interpret verbal symbols. If verbal and gestural symbols struggle, receiving systems by and large believe the gestural symbols over the verbal symbols. For illustration, a gross revenues representative may state that your history is really of import but so keeps you waiting. The representative ‘s gestural communicating may do you to oppugn the representative ‘s earnestness, and you may make up one's mind to take your concern elsewhere. 2. A sender which operates on the message in order to bring forth a signal suita ble for transmittal over the channel. 3. The channel is simply the medium used to convey the signal from sender to receiver. The manner a transmitter selects to direct a message is called the channel. Letterss, memorandas, and studies are the most common channels for written messages. One-to-one conversations, telephone conversations, and meetings are common channels of unwritten messages. Electronic mail, videoconferences and voice mail are common channels of electronic messages. Choosing the appropriate channel is important. 4. The receiving system normally performs the reverse operation of that done by the sender, retracing the message from the signal. 5. The finish is the individual for whom the message is intended. Here the finish is the receiver. A individual or things to whom a message is sent is the receiver. The receiver is responsible to give significance to the verbal and gestural symbols used by the transmitter. The significance receiving systems give to message depends on their several educational backgrounds, experiences, involvements, sentiments, and emotional provinces. Miscommunication consequences if the receiving system gives the message a different significance than the transmitter intended. As it is seen from the diagram, Shannon did non include feedback which is truly critical for effectual communicating. Shannon ‘s communicating procedure theoretical account was stimulus phase for other behavioral scientists ; because they developed his theoretical account more advanced and included feedback as an of import phase. Feedback is a message or portion of a message that the receiver returns to the transmitter so that the message may be modified or adjusted to do it clearer to the receiver. When one individual responds to another ‘s message, the response is called feedback. Feedback is the reaction of the receiving system to the message received. It may besides be gestural ( a smiling, a scowl, a intermission, etc. ) or it may be verbal ( a telephone call or a missive ) . Feedback is a critical constituent of effectual communicating because it helps find whether the receiving system has understood the message. These communicating procedure constituents may breakdown at different phases. First of wholly, we will specify the significance of dislocation or barrier. Breakdown to communication include anything that prevents a message from being received or understood. Barriers/breakdowns are, hence, synonymous in many ways with noise though technological noise ( e.g. inactive on telephone lines ) is less of a barrier and more of an obstruction. A technological job does non normally stop communicating, though it may barricade it temporarily. Technological jobs are besides possibly the easiest jobs to work out. When equipment fails, is unsuited to the undertaking for which it is used, or when the job is every bit simple as an wrong telephone figure, this can normally be rapidly identified and remedied. Technological jobs are, hence, a signifier of noise but they are an obstruction instead than a barrier to communicating. Barriers are normally of homo instead than technological beginning. Human barriers are frequently less seeable but by and large more eventful. These three barriers are: Socio-cultural barriers ; Psychological barriers ; Organisational barriers. Socio-cultural barriers. Communication ever involves other people. An person can be a bearer of civilization but one individual can non make civilization. Culture is a group or societal phenomenon. Culture is powerful. The linguistic communication we use, the nutrient we eat and how we eat it, how we dress, what we believe and so on, are all powerful cultural traits. We accept them as if they were non-confrontable and non-debatable. Culture occurs at national, cultural, regional and even organizational degree can be a barrier to communicating exactly because civilization is both powerful and shaping of groups. The cardinal socio-cultural elements that may be barriers are: Groupthink is the societal phenomenon which occurs when group behaviour dominates and stifles the decision-making procedure ( Janis 1982 ) . It occurs when societal norms or a group ‘s desire for consensus overwhelms its desire to make determinations that are in its best involvement. It is what happens when shared values and conformance get out of control. Group think is a major job in concern, where people work extensively in groups and squads. For case, group members over-communicate or emphasize their similarities in beliefs and values while, at the same clip, concealing or under-communicating their differences. This consequences in the visual aspect of tight similarity within the group. Another illustration, the group develops and maintains strong shared beliefs without oppugning their truth or their implicit in premises. Rather than acknowledging some direction or strategic mistake to explicate failure, the group will apologize or fault external forces. Conflicting values and belief. Culture is based on shared beliefs and values. When communicating occurs across cultural boundaries, the potency for misinterpretation is magnified. Cultural and societal norms are so deep-rooted that people act upon them without being consciously cognizant of making so. When cross-cultural concern ventures fail, the participants are frequently unable to understand why. It is normally a communicating failure stemming from a deficiency of cognition about each other ‘s basic values and norms. Administrations need to guarantee they are familiar with possible cultural differences before trying to make concern across civilizations. Languages and slang. Even when we ‘re pass oning in the same linguistic communication, words mean different things to different people. Age and context are two of the biggest factors that influence the linguistic communication a individual uses and the definitions he/she gives to words. When Michael Schiller, a concern adviser, was speaking with his 15-year-old girl about where she was traveling with her friends, he told her, â€Å"You need to acknowledge your ARAs and step against them.† His girl â€Å"looked at him like he was from outer space.† ARA stands for answerability, duty, and authorization. This point is that although we all can talk the same linguistic communication, but the usage of that linguistic communication is far from unvarying. If we knew how each of us modified the linguistic communication, communicating troubles would be minimized.Psychological Barriers are those associating to the person and the person ‘s mental and emotional province. Key psychological barriers are:Filtering. Peoples tend to hear what they want to hear and see what they want to see. For illustration, at Beacon Research Associates, a mid-sized, societal study company, leaders of each research squad were informed by missive of their budget allotments twice a twelvemonth. When the undertaking director received his allotment, he scanned the missive, took note of the sum of his budget and quickly filed the missive. What he did non notice was the paragraph which stated that the research allowance had to be used up in this budget period within six months. Any excess sum could non be carried frontward into the following period. The director selected from all of the information in the missive merely the informations in which he was interested – his budget allotment – and filtered out the remainder. The consequence was that six months subsequently he was really surprised to larn that the balance of his budget financess was recalled, which pu t terrible force per unit area on some undertakings. Often our consequences and prejudices are a consequence of personal value systems or our cultural backgrounds. The key to avoiding filtrating jobs is to listen carefully, to read carefully and to be cognizant that we all have a inclination to be selective about the information and information with which we are confronted. Percepts are how we view the universe. We choose our friends because they tend to believe like us, act like us, believe the things in which we believe and do the sorts of things we do. We frequently are non even cognizant that our perceptual experiences influence so many countries of our life. We have perceptual experiences of world that we trust and we behave harmonizing to those beliefs which, in bend, act upon our behavior. Our perceptual experiences can be barriers to communicating. We can decline to admit or go to to what is being communicated because we have preconceived thoughts about its relevancy to our lives. Faulty memory. Sometimes we do n't retrieve what has been communicated to us ; this will take to incomplete or uneffective communicating. Good memory accomplishments can be learnt and should be practised in order to go an effectual communicator. Poor listening accomplishments. Inadequate memory accomplishments can besides be attributed to hapless hearing. Day-dreaming, reading, listening to another conversation instead than the 1 in which we are engaged, looking around the room and merely by and large non concentrating on listening represent hapless listening accomplishments. Emotional intervention. Emotions can be a barrier to communication both in sending and receiving messages. When people are angry, fearful or sad their communicating accomplishments can be impaired. We can non command person ‘s emotions ; nevertheless we can command our ain emotions to a grade. How the receiving system feels at the clip of reception of a communicating influences how he/she interprets it. The same message received when we ‘re angry or distraught is frequently interpreted otherwise than it is when we ‘re happy. Extreme emotions such as exultation or depression are most likely to impede effectual communicating.Organizational barriers chiefly relate to the administration ‘s construction, civilization, forms of work and communicating flows. The most common organizational barriers are:Information overload. Persons have a finite capacity for treating informations. When the information we have to work with exceeds our processing capacity, the consequen ce is information overload. And with electronic mails, IM, phone calls, facsimiles, meetings, and the demand to maintain current in one ‘s field, the potency for today ‘s directors and professionals to endure from information overload is high. Message competition. Information overload leads to message competition. The sum of information we deal with every twenty-four hours forces us to do picks about what is of import and what can be ignored. A director can have a 100s of messages a twenty-four hours in different signifiers. Directors are put under more emphasis by the possible danger of losing or disregarding of import messages and therefore endanger their effectivity. Information deformation. A potentially bigger cost can be paid by administrations that suffer from information deformation. Taller structures mean that information has to go through through more sections and people before acquiring to its finish. This may do the information to be distorted due to misconstruing. Message filtrating. Directors select the communications to which they pay attending by filtrating or testing them. When go throughing on information directors one time once more filter information or reproduce it in brief signifier for the ingestion of others. This procedure happens at many degrees in administrations. Status differences. Directors tend to listen less carefully to subsidiaries. This will take dislocation of communicating. Structural jobs. Administrations can be structured with many beds and directors in the top would hold less communicating with the below employees of the hierarchal construction. The greater the distance – physical, societal or cultural, between two points, the longer it will take to acquire information from one point to the other. George Eliot says: â€Å"The people of the universe are islands shouting at each other across a sea of misunderstanding.† It is really critical to hold effectual communicating in order to be successful. It can be achieved by avoiding communicating dislocation. These stairss are: directing clear messages to the receiving system, and finish the message adequate to enable both the transmitter and the receiving system to make a common apprehension ; transmitter should avoid the specialized linguistic communication such as slang when composing to an foreigner ; message should be in platitude linguistic communication non cliches or local expressions that mean nil to a non-native talker ; the receiving system should besides be a good hearer by halt speaking, put the talker at easiness, keeping oculus contact, being open-minded, inquiring inquiry or giving a feedback. A communicator should digest bad wonts in order to set up good resonance sometimes ; should avoid accusals ; should concentrate on behavior non a individual ; should be specific instead than general ; should avoid defensiveness ; should portion in formation instead than giving advice ; should propose more acceptable options ; should give positive feedback. Deep external respiration, remaining entirely for a piece will assist get the better of emotional barriers. Administrations should concentrate on jobs and issues ; they should listen and promote subsidiaries efficaciously despite of their position. Employers should pay attending to the words and feelings of the employees that are being expressed. If an administration receives many messages from the clients, they should use excess staff for specifically looking after the messages and facsimiles. Communication is good or effectual when members of an administration portion information with each other and all parties involved are comparatively clear about what this information means.DecisionWe have discussed about communicating, Shannon ‘s mathematical communicating procedure and its constituents ; the barriers to communicating and steps how to avoid them. As discussed earlier we communicate because of a demand: a demand to acquire our thoughts across to others. Like animate beings, we communicate with sounds, although unlike animate beings, we have evolved address, which can convey complex thoughts. Unlike animate beings, excessively, we can encode these sounds into symbols, therefore giving the thoughts their ain extended and independent life crossing the coevalss. Communication can be seen as a round procedure. Person has an thought they wish to go through on. They determine who is to have the thought, and how it is to be recorded and transmitted. The chosen receiver becomes a transmitter when they deliver feedback to the conceiver of the thought to demo that is has been received and understood. Peoples engaged in communicating encode and decode messages while at the same time functioning as both transmitter and receiving systems. In the communicating procedure, feedback helps people resolve possible misinterpretations and therefore better communicating effectivity. Communication takes two signifiers – verbal and non-verbal. Although non-verbal is of import, verbal communicating is the manner that we communicate the thoughts, ideas or instructions we need to go through on. We do this in two ways: spoken and written. For a communicating to be effectual it has to be received and understood. There are two peculiar accomplishments concerned with apprehension: hearing efficaciously and reading attentively. Communication is one of the most of import procedures that takes topographic point in administrations. Effective communicating allows persons, groups, and administrations to accomplish their ends and execute at high degrees, and it affects virtually every facet of organizational behavior.Bibliographic MentionsForsyth, P. and Madden, D. 2005, Business Communications, ICSA Publishing Ltd, Norfolk. George, J. M and Jones, G. R. 2008, Understanding and Managing Organizational Behavior, Pearson Prentice Hall, 5th ed. , US. Himstreet and Bary 1965, Business Communications, 2nd ed. , Wadsworth Publishing Company, California. Himstreet, Baty and Lehman 1993, Business communications, 10th ed. , Wadsworth Publishing Company, California. Judge, R. 2009, Organizational Behavior, 13th ed. , Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey. McQuail, D. and Windahl, S. 1982, Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communication, 2nd ed. , Longman Publishing, New York. Rouse, M. J. and Rouse, S. 2002, Business Communications, Thomson Learning, Cornwall. Shannon, C. E. and Weaver, W. 1949, the Mathematical Theory of Communication, the University of Illinois Press, Urbana. Steil K. Lyman 1983, Effective Listening: Key to your success, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Canada. hypertext transfer protocol: //patchwork-st.blogspot.com/2007/03/how-to-avoid-communication-breakdown.html ( 13.04.2009 ) hypertext transfer protocol: //www.coachingachievement.co.uk/overcoming_communication_barriers.htm ( 13.04.2009 )

How Ser or Estar Affects Spanish Adjectives

How Ser or Estar Affects Spanish Adjectives Although ser and estar both mean to be, to the native Spanish speaker they dont mean the same thing. As a result, some adjectives can change in meaning depending on whether theyre used with ser or estar. One common example is listo. When used with ser, it typically refers to being clever or intelligent: El mono es listo, flexible e innovador. (The monkey is clever, flexible and innovative.) But when used with estar, it often means ready: Dice que no est lista para convertirse en madre. (She says she isnt ready to become a mother.) One reason for the change in meaning is because ser is typically (although there are exceptions) used with enduring or innate qualities - and in the case of listo, you might think of clever as similar in meaning to the idea of always ready. Following are some other adjectives that you can think of as changing in meaning depending on which form of to be they are used with. Important note, especially for beginning Spanish students: As always, context is essential to correctly understanding what is said. The rules may be more flexible in real life than the way they are presented here. Also, the meanings given below arent the only possible ones. Aburrido ser aburrido (to be boring):  ¿Quià ©n dijo que la ciencia era aburrida? (Who said science was boring?) estar aburrido (to be bored): Recià ©n lleguà © a este paà ­s con mis padres al principio estaba aburrida. (I recently arrived in this country with my parents, and at first I was bored.) Bueno ser bueno (to be good): Escuchar à ³pera es bueno para el corazà ³n. (Listening to opera is good for the heart.) estar bueno (to be tasty, fresh, sexually attractive): Si haces una ensalada con lechuga est buena, pero si le pones pepino y un buen alià ±o,  ¿no est mejor? (If you make a salad with lettuce it is tasty, but if you add a  cucumber and a good dressing, isnt it better?) Cansado ser cansado (to be boring, tiresome, tiring): Buscar trabajo es cansado cuando te llenas de ansiedad. Looking for work is tiring when you are full of anxiety. estar cansado (to be tired): Estaban cansados de la situacià ³n en su paà ­s. They were tired of the situation in their country. Despierto ser despierto (to be sharp, alert): Los dos eran despiertos pero nadie hablaba. (The two were alert but nobody spoke.) estar despierto (to be awake): Los dos estaban despiertos y podà ­an comunicarse. (The two were awake and could communicate with each other.) Enfermo ser enfermo (to be sickly, an invalid): El perro llegà ³ a ser enfermo y murià ³. (The dog became sickly and died. Also, in context, ser enfermo is sometimes used to refer to mental illness.) estar enfermo (to be sick): Desde hace un aà ±o, yo estaba enferma de està ³mago. (Since a year ago I have had a stomach illness.) Interesado ser interesado (to be selfish): Creen que el hijo de Lupillo es interesado y materialista. (They think Lupillos son is selfish and materialistic.) estar interesado (to be interested): Rusia est interesada en las reservas de litio que tiene Bolivia. (Russia is interested in the lithium reserves that Bolivia has.) Malo ser malo (to be bad): Siempre nos han dicho que automedicarse es malo. (We have always been told that self-medicating is bad.) estar malo (to be ill, to be in bad shape): Parece que el disco duro est malo. (It appears that my hard disk is in bad shape.) Orgulloso ser orgulloso (to be proud in a bad way, such as by being boastful): Mi esposo es orgulloso y prepotente. Yo tolero muchas veces su indiferencia y egoà ­smo. (My husband is prideful and arrogant. I often put up with his indifference and egotism.) estar malo (to be proud of something or someone in a positive way): Mi madre estaba orgullosa de lo que sus hijos estaban haciendo. (My mother was proud of what her children were doing.) Rico ser rico (to be wealthy or rich): La presentadora de televisià ³n es la ms rica y la à ºnica mujer entre los millonarios de Estados Unidos mayores de 50 aà ±os. (The television host is the richest and only woman among the U.S. millionaires more than 50 years old.) estar rico (to be delicious): Fuimos en familia al restaurante, y todo estuvo rico y fresco. (We went as a family to the restuarant, and everything was delicious and fresh.) Seguro ser seguro (to be safe): Es seguro tomar taxi en Ciudad de Mexico. (It is safe to take a taxi in Mexico City.) estar seguro (to be certain): No est seguro de lo perià ³dicos o revistas que ha leà ­do. (She isnt certain of the newspapers or magazines that she has read.)

Quotes From The Handmaids Tale

Quotes From The Handmaids Tale The Handmaids Tale is a best-selling novel by Margaret Atwood set in a feminist dystopian future in which war and pollution have made pregnancy and childbirth increasingly difficult and women are enslaved as prostitutes  or virginal concubines - handmaiden - in an effort to repopulate and control the population. Atwoods beautiful, haunting prose in The Handmaids Tale is told from the first person perspective of a woman called Offred (or Of Fred, her master). The story follows Offred through her third service as a handmaiden and also offers flashbacks to her life before the Revolution that led to this new American society founded on religious fanaticism. Blessed be the fruit, Atwood writes in Chapter Four, an indoctrination for the handmaidens who have to go through intense training for their servitude before being assigned to a master whose child she will bear. Read on to discover more quotes from this famous novel and learn more about the not-too-distant-or-improbable future of Margaret Atwoods The Handmaids Tale, which is also an acclaimed television series. Quotes About Hope In Dystopia The character of Offred carries with her a certain quiet optimism that her daughter, who was taken from her when she tried to flee to Canada with her husband at the start of the revolution, is still alive, though this hope is diminished by the harsh conditions she lives under as a handmaiden, as described in Chapter 5: There is more than one kind of freedom ... Freedom to and freedom from. In the days of anarchy, it was freedom to. Now you are being given freedom from. Dont underrate it. Of her daughter, Offred says, also in Chapter 5, She is a flag on a hilltop, showing what can still be done: we too can be saved. Here, the character reveals her hope hinges upon the fact that her daughter has still not turned up on the wall where the ruling class hangs sinners near where Offred is held. Still, this optimism and hope is nothing in the face of the reality Offred finds herself in, and she admits in Chapter 7 that shes pretending the reader can hear her, But its no good because I know you cant. The Other Handmaidens Offred seems to have contempt for her fellow handmaidens, perhaps for their complacency or their simplistic view of the world: They are very interested in how other households are run; such bits of petty gossip give them an opportunity for pride or discontent. Still, Offred shared similarities with all other handmaidens in that they were the people who were not in the papers, the ones who lived in the blank white spaces at the edge of print, which Offred said gave them more freedom. All of them also undergo an indoctrination, a brainwashing ritual at the Academy where they train to be handmaidens. In Chapter 13, Offred describes a scene where the handmaidens are all seated in a circle around a woman confessing to being raped - Her fault, her fault, her fault, we chant in unison, Atwood writes. The woman training them, Aunt Lydia, also encourages all the handmaidens that though the new concepts introduced in their schooling may seem strange at first, they will eventually become mundane, but if not, the handmaidens would be punished for stepping out of line like one woman Offred describes in Chapter 8: She doesnt make speeches anymore. She has become speechless. She stays in her home, but it doesnt seem to agree with her. How furious she must be now that she has been taken at her word.   Offred feels a pressure to fulfill these new standards despite herself, and in Chapter 13 says of her shortcomings, I have failed once again to fulfill the expectations of others, which have become my own. In Chapter 30 Offred says of her oppressors, That was one of the things they do. They force you to kill, within yourself, and ultimately in Chapter 32, she realizes an important lesson when her master Fred tells her,  Better never means better for everyone... It always means worse for some.   Various Other Quotes I dont want to look at something that determines me so completely. (Chapter 12)Give me children, or else I die. Am I in Gods stead, who hath withheld from thee the fruit of the womb? Behold my maid Bilhah. She shall bear fruit upon my knees, that I may also have children by her.(Chapter 15)Moira had power now, shed been set loose, shed set herself loose. She was now a loose woman. (Chapter 22)Maybe none of this is about control. Maybe it isnt really about who can own whom, who can do what to whom and get away with it, even as far as death. Maybe it isnt about who can sit and who has to kneel or stand or lie down, legs spread open. Maybe its about who can do what to whom and be forgiven for it. Never tell me it amounts to the same thing. (Chapter 23)There is something subversive about this garden of Serenas, a sense of buried things bursting upwards, wordlessly, into the light, as if to say: Whatever is silenced will clamor to be heard, though silently. (Chapter 25)Agreed to it right away, really she didnt care, anything with two legs and a good you-know-what was fine with her. They arent squeamish, they dont have the same feelings we do. (Chapter 33) And Adam was not deceived, but the women being deceived was in the transgression. Notwithstanding she shall be saved by childbearing. (Chapter 34)There is something reassuring about the toilets. Bodily functions at least remain democratic. Everybody shits, as Moira would say. (Chapter 39)The trouble is I cant be, with him, any different than I usually am with him. Usually, I am inert. Surely there must be something for us, other than this futility and bathos. (Chapter 39)It makes me feel more in control as if there is a choice, a decision that could be made one way or the other. (Chapter 41)The crimes of others are a secret language among us. Through them, we show ourselves what we might be capable of, after all. This is not a popular announcement. (Chapter 42)Dear God, I think, I will do anything you like. Now that youve let me off, Ill obliterate myself, if that is what you really want; Ill empty myself, truly, become a chalice. Ill give up Nick, Ill forget about the others, Ill st op complaining. Ill accept my lot. Ill sacrifice. Ill repent. Ill abdicate. Ill renounce. (Chapter 45) Dont let the bastards grind you down. I repeat this to myself but it conveys nothing. You might as well say, Dont let there be air; or Dont be. I suppose you could say that. (Chapter 46)

MOD4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

MOD4 - Essay Example This results in confounded data since different people view the employee under assessment differently. If such feedback were to be classified, the peers would be classified differently, the bosses, and the other colleagues too. Under each group there people with similar ideas about the individual being assessed, there are those with different opinions, and there are those who may have nothing to say. These people may also be influenced by various factors. This is the source of confusion that is brought about by this method. Inaccuracy: Information is obtained from various people, some of whom do not have adequate opportunity to see an individual’s behaviour in all aspects. Accuracy of such kind of information is therefore, suspect. Difficulty in interpretation: it is indicated that with this kind of assessment, people find it difficult to transform information into proper action, or to interpret facts about their own performance. No, different circumstances face healthcare professionals and these cannot be used to judge their behaviour. There is the risk of complexity in the kind of data produced. Feedback providers may not provide accurate information depending on the situation they were in, for example emergency situations, and the feedback may be discouraging (Tosti & Addison, 2009). A skills gap is a situation where an organization’s capabilities demands skills that cannot be provided by its current employees. Skills gap exist because; the level of education does not match what the nations need, and more jobs are changing in terms of technology, knowledge, and teamwork requirements (Galagan, 2010). Reasons that account for skill gaps are; change in organizational strategies, effects of mergers and acquisitions, company leadership ranks’ lack of bench strength, and reduced investments allocated for training. The leading cause of skill gaps was lack of qualified

Mental illness in our community Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Mental illness in our community - Essay Example This essay will discuss how the community can deal with such patients, and to what extent the patient himself can be a part of his recovery. In most nations, mental health care implies confinement to mental hospitals or care by community mental health teams. Such teams are expected to meet the health and social needs. Physical health is not given importance and hospital visits are short and infrequent. The mental health practitioners have no training in physical care. The state hospitals in fact are unable to meet the wants and needs of patients with mental illness, which has caused community based settings to come up (Anthony, 1993). The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) devised the concept of Community Support System (CSS) to assist people with long-term psychiatric disorders. The community needs support to provide support to patients with mental disorders. The consequence of community based treatment led to the understanding that it is important to treat the cause of the illness rather than the illness. Mental illness does not merely cause mental impairments but it leads to functional limitations, disabilities, and handicaps. Studies and treatment led to the understanding that recovery is important in mental illness just as in physical illness. Recovery does not mean cure or freedom from the disease but it means acceptance of the disease. A person is able to change his attitude, values, goals, feelings, behavior, and role in life. He is in better control of his life, can lead a satisfying life, and contribute despite limitations. Recovery means to find a new meaning in life as one learns to grow beyond the illness. People with mental illness normally have a stigma attached to them. The community is responsible to help them recover from this stigma. They already suffer from lack of oppurtunities and negative effects of unemployment. Recovery is a difficult

AFTER THE FACT ASSIGNMENT Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

AFTER THE FACT - Assignment Example The prologue of the account, however, narrated Deane’s close connection with his personal aide, Edward Bancroft and Deane’s partnership with Bancroft in their sort of gambling escapades when he was exiled. Deane was alleged to have known of Bancroft being a double spy to both Britain and the U.S., and so, when Deane decided to come back to his country, he died aboard a ship. Though a conjecture, some evidences gathered by historians can link Bancroft’s fear of being revealed as a traitor and his thorough knowledge in poisons. With this account, truth is defined as a product of careful analysis of evidences, and the apparent connections of them in order to make a logical and coherent conclusion. Top rail bias means that writing history is mired by prejudices and bias of affluent history authors who are the producers of most history books. Bottom rail means citing, for instance, a slave as a source of a historical research. It is difficult to be used as a reliable source of information knowing the biases present in every slave’s dependence to their lords (Davidson and Lytle 206). Good sources are diverse, meaning they come from two different people, and must be first-hand. Moreover, any freedman’s point-of-view should not be taken by face-value. Sack’s method of investigation could have worked better because it did not employ any form of deceit, and it is an accuracy-driven method. An outside factor, such as race and inherent prejudices, plays a crucial role in a historical researching. Sack’s approach that entails thorough research and comparison of accounts works best. Meanwhile, the case of the colorblind painter depicted a historical approach in finding a solution to blindness problem. This is equally true with historical research. Treating every reader as blind from history and the historian as well could make a history research free from biases and prejudices and will be even more

Ultrasonic transducers

Ultrasonic transducers 1.1 Introduction Transducer is a device which converts energy of one form to that of another. With reference to ultrasonic transducer the ultrasonic energy is to be converted to electrical, mechanical, or other energy form. A reversible transducer transforms energy in both directions with equal efficiencies. The transducers can be classified as follows: 1. Piezoelectric oscillators: Principle of piezoelectric effect is used and this is reversible. The possible frequency range is from 20 kHz to well over 10 GHz. 2. Magnetostrictive oscillators: Employs the phenomenon of magnetostriction, a reversible form of conversion. Can be made to operate at mega-hertz and even gigahertz frequencies. 3. Mechanical transducers: Includes whistles and sirens (mechanical oscillators) and radiometers, and are irreversible. Mainly used for high-power applications. 4. Electromagnetic transducers: Applied for high-intensity applications at low frequencies, in the audible range. They have been used for low-intensity work at frequencies of up to 50 kHz and, also as receivers at megahertz frequencies. 5. Electrostatic transducers: Used as generators at low intensities with an upper frequency limit of a few hundred kilo-hertz. Reversible in conversion and used as receivers at frequencies as high as 100 MHz. 6. Miscellaneous transducers: Includes thermal, chemical, and optical transducers. Ultrasonic receivers are categorized into two 1. Receivers terminating acoustic beams: The cross-section of the receiver embraces the whole or a large proportion of that of the beam and its dimensions extend from several to a large number of wavelengths. The presence of the receiver materially affects the configuration of the acoustic field, to give rise to regular reflections of the beam. 2. Receivers acting as probes: ultrasonic probe receivers are used for mapping out acoustic fields and for measurement of local intensities. the use of probe receivers is restricted to lower frequencies (e.g. in the kilo-hertz range)., as their dimensions need to be small enough, not to upset the characteristics of the field,( to be less than about one-tenth of a wavelength). 1.2 Piezoelectric transducers 1.2.1 General considerations Piezoelectric transducers employ the piezoelectric effect, discovered by the Pierre and Jacques Curie in 1880. The effect occurs naturally in certain single crystals with polar axes, (e.g. quartz, tourmaline, lithium sulphate, cadmium sulphide, and zinc oxide.) When mechanical stress is applied to the surfaces of piezoelectric crystals, coated with silver or gold, equal and opposite electric charges will be induced on them and a voltage will be observed. This is the direct piezoelectric effect, and the crystalline axis perpendicular to the coated faces is the relevant polar axis. When a voltage is applied across the electrodes to produce an electric field, a converse effect is observed, resulting in a mechanical strain. These effects are associated with compressions and shears, in quartz, for example, the principal polar axes are called the X- and Y axes, there is three of each. The X-axes are oriented at angles of 120Â ° apart, and with corresponding Y-axis perpendicular to it. The electrodes lie at right angles to an X-axis for X-cut quartz crystals, and are associated with compressions, and Y-cut quartz crystals with shears. The Z-axis, is known as the optic axis and lies perpendicular to the planes containing the X- and Y-axes. Optic is a non-polar axis for which the piezoelectric effect is not observed. A piezoelectric transducer oscillates at the applied frequency with amplitude of the order of 10-6 times its thickness, on applying an alternating voltage across its electrodes,. If, the transducer is excited at one of its resonance frequencies the amplitude is considerably increased, e.g. to about 10-4 times the thickness at the fundamental frequency Artificially induced piezoelectric transducers are of polycrystalline structure. They are made up of large numbers of minute crystallites bonded together, to the required shape and size. The final product is in the form of a ceramic. Prior to polarisation, these ceramic transducers do not require to be cut with reference to any particular axis, as they are isotropic. So it is possible to have a shape in any convenient form by adding small quantities of other materials, the transducers properties can be improved or adjusted. The piezoelectric effect is measured by the d coefficient, which can be expressed in one or two ways. (i) If the crystal is subjected to a mechanical stress, at the same time, the electrodes are short-circuited by a wire, charges induced by the stress will flow through the wire until the potential difference across the crystal is reduced to zero. Considering, q is the value of the total charge flowing and F the force producing the stress, then d coefficient can be given as d=q/f coulombs per Newton 3.1 (ii) When a voltage V is applied across the crystal, on which no load is applied e.g. vacuum, a displacement l is produced due to the resultant strain, then volts per metre 3.2 The electromechanical coupling coefficient is defined as Both d and k vary with temperature and reduce to zero at the Curie temperature Tc. The frequency response of a transducer depends on its Q factor. If the characteristic impedances of transducer and medium are R1 and R2, then Q can be represented as where K is a dimensionless constant. Ceramic transducers have higher d coefficients and electromagnetic coupling coefficients compared to the quartz crystals. But quartz crystals are highly stable. 1.2.2. Coupling of Piezo electric transducers A suitable liquid must be provided to avoid an air gap , for efficient coupling of ultrasound between the transducer and a solid. To generate longitudinal waves at normal temperatures, a film of oil is usually enough, but, at low temperatures a high-vacuum grease is used to prevent loss of continuity of characteristic impedance. While working with high temperatures, a couplant which does not evaporate, should be chosen. .For transverse wave propagation, it is necessary to use adhesive such as epoxy resin, so as to ensure the couplant has enough strength to withstand the application of the shear stresses without collapsing. Canada balsam or even nail varnish , on some occasions will provide good coupling for shear waves, depending on the temperatures. 1.2.3 Ultrahigh frequency (u.h.f.) piezoelectric transducers An early method of generating u.h.f. ultrasonics was to place one end of a single-crystal quartz rod inside an electromagnetic cavity resonator Ci (see Figure ). The surface was excited at the required frequency, and waves were propagated along the rod. Initially the method was applied only for producing ultrasound in single-crystal quartz , due to difficulty of coupling other materials to the free end of the rod. Another electromagnetic cavity resonator C2 at the other end of the rod acted as a receiver. In later stages the free ends of the rod and solid specimen was coated with thin film of indium. 1.2.4 Piezoelectric sandwich transducers To generate waves at the frequencies ranging from 40 kHz down to 20 kHz.frequency, for High-intensity applications ,with a piezoelectric ceramic, the thickness should exceed 100 mm. A ceramic block of this thickness is both expensive and is highly absorbent. Due to this, absorbed acoustical energy being converted into heat, results in a rapid increase of temperature and the Curie temperature is soon reached, with a consequent disappearance of the piezoelectric effect. To avoid this sandwiching of the piezoelectric transducers can be applied. A sandwich transducer consists of a comparatively thin piezoelectric plate located between two thicker metal plates.They have high compressive strengths and by compressing the sandwich permanently using high tensile bolt damage can be prevented. (see Figure 3.7); the transducer is said to be mechanically biased. 1.2.5 Surface wave piezoelectric transducers Surface waves can be generated by using mode conversion with a longitudinal wave transducer as the primary source, but it is also possible to propagate them directly. Surface waves are produced by placing an ordinary longitudinal wave transducer in contact with the edge of the material and inclined at an angle of 45Â ° (Fig 3.4) and are received in same fashion. Another method of generating and receiving surface waves is by coating two electrodes on the surface of a piezoelectric material and applying the exciting voltage at the required frequency across them (see Figure 3.5). This technique was used for delay line applications 1.2.6 Operation of piezoelectric transducers A quartz crystal mounted at its nodes, is an ideal one for propagating continuous waves over a narrow frequency band. Electrical connections must be made to the electrodes and additional damping caused by them should be kept minimal. Nodal mounting is not advisable for very thin transducers and where contact with a solid medium has to be maintained. For cases like these, the transducer is held in position by means of a light spring against a solid surface. Then the solid surface provides one electrical contact with the transducer electrode and the other is provided by the spring. To have maximum efficiency, the impedances of the exciting and receiving electrical circuits should be correctly matched to the electrical impedance of the transducer. For pulsed wave operation it is essential that the pulses are kept sufficiently short to prevent their overlapping. No stationary waves are to be produced in the medium. To produce very short pulses and where a narrow frequency band is not needed, transducer material, such as a ceramic is used. The transducer is backed by a block of a material having a very high acoustic absorption coefficient and of sufficiently large electrical conductivity to provide contact with that transducer surface. A mixture of tungsten powder and Aroldite is used for this purpose. A high direct voltage (typically from 300 V to 600 V) of instantaneous duration is applied periodically to the transducer electrodes at the required pulse repetition frequency. At each electrical impulse, the transducer experiences a high initial strain after which it oscillates over about two or three cycles, the amplitude decreasing rapidly.. Thus, for a transducer operating at a frequency of 6 MHz to produce pulses each of thre e wavelengths, the pulse duration is about only 0.5ÃŽ ¼ for propagation into most metals. The relation between pulse-length (PL) in seconds and the frequency bandwidth can be given as: PL= 1.3/ Frequency Bandwidth 3.4 1.3 Magnetostrictive transducers Magnetostrictive transducers are made of ferromagnetic materials, which can easily be magnetised and displays magnetostriction or the Joule effect. When a bar or rod of one of these materials is placed in a magnetic field, it suffers a change in length, either an increase or decrease, depending on the nature of the material and the strength of the field, immaterial of the sign of strain. Hence, when the direction of magnetic field is reversed, there is no change in the sense of the strain. Figure 3.11 shows the relationship between mechanical strain and the magnitude of the field strength for a few ferromagnetic materials. The graph imples, the variation is not a linear one, in general. Nickel is found to be the most satisfactory material for magnetostrictive transducers, having an electromechanical coupling coefficient of 31 per cent and a Curie temperature of 358Â °C. Permendur, an alloy, has a higher Curie point (about 900Â °C) and low electromechanical coupling coefficient. Though ferrites (non metals) has an advantage of being poor conductors and not being heated by eddy currents, and exhibit magnetostrictive effect are not often used as transducers due to their poor mechanical properties. There is a converse magnetostrictive effect, in which a mechanical stress applied to a ferromagnetic rod lying in a magnetic field gives rise to a change in the magnetic flux density. This is known as the Villari effect. Magnetostrictive transducers are in the forms of rods surrounded by coil windings (see Figure 3.7). An alternating magnetic field of the same frequency is induced by an alternating current through the coil ; giving rise to longitudinal oscillations of the rod. These oscillations take place at a twice the frequency of the field and take on the form of unsmooth, rectified alternating current, resulting in unwanted frequencies. As in the case of ceramic transducers. This disadvantage is avoided by polarisation, as in ceramic transducers. It is not possible to obtain a high polarising field by permanent magnetisation, and a steady direct field of suitable magnitude is provided by passing a direct current through another coil wound round the transducer. So, the oscillations occur about some other point instead of taking place about the origin of the curve. If the amplitude of the applied alternating field is low for changes to take place along the linear portion of the curve, and, is less than the value of the polarising field, then sinusoidal oscillations occur at the applied frequency. The resonance frequency inversely proportional with the length of the transducer rod. The frequency is increased by decreasing the length, but, simultaneously , there is a intensity is lowered for a rod of given cross-sectional dimensions , which results from the reduction in size of the vibrating mass. So, at frequencies more than 100 kHz ,the output from this type of transducer becomes vanishingly small. The considerable leakage of magnetic flux is observed , which is a disadvantage of using rod-shaped oscillators . Transducers designed to form closed magnetic circuits are used for high-intensity applications The window-type transducer is clamped nodally, and the vibrations produced are longitudinal. In ring-type transducer, vibrations are in a radial manner, and hence ultrasonic energy is focused at the centre resulting in high acoustic intensity. Absorption of ultrasound by induction of Eddy currents and Hystersis results in increased amount of eating. Though there are a number of ferromagnetic materials with low hysteresis losses, their magnetostrictive properties are poor. The losses due to eddy current can be reduced by using laminated stacks consisting of alternating sheets of the metal and of some insulating material such as mica. Since the rise in temperature may result in loss of magnetostrictive properties, it is necessary to cool the transducer during its operation. By using velocity transformer, an increased intensity, distributed over a smaller area, can also be obtained with both rod and window types of transducers. This consists of a tapered coupling rod and provides an increase in the value of the particle velocity at the end remote from the transducer. For maximum efficiency, the transformer is designed to resonate by making it one wavelength long and supporting it at a nodal point, i.e. at a distance of a quarter-wavelength from the transducer. The diagram illustrates the application of the velocity transformer to the construction of the ultrasonic drill Magnetostrictive oscillators being reversible can be used as receivers. An example of a magnetostrictive probe receiver consists of a nickel rod held vertically in a fluid in which ultrasound is radiated in an upward direction. The rod is contained in a plastic tube so that only the free end is exposed to the waves which are then transmitted along its length. A current is induced by the Villari effect in the pick-up coil placed near the upper end of the rod. Another coil carrying a direct current provides the polarising field. The formation of stationary waves is prevented by placing an absorbent material at the top of the rod. Nickel film transducers are used for producing and receiving ultrasound of very high frequencies ranging from 100 MHz to 100 GHz in solids. A thin film of nickel, of thickness corresponding to one half-wavelength at the resonant frequency, is deposited on the end-surface of the specimen into which sound is to be passed. The rod is located with its plated end inside a microwave electromagnetic cavity resonator, excited at the required frequency. The receiver may consist of a similar film coated on the opposite surface of the specimen and also located in a cavity resonator. Instead a single nickel film can act as both source and receiver, using reflection method. No coupling material is required and no special technique is necessary for coating the nickel film. 1.4. Mechanical Transducers Mechanical ultrasonic generators are used for high-intensity propagation in liquids and gases at frequencies of up to about 25 kHz .They exist mainly in the forms of whistles and sirens. They are powerful and less expensive than piezoelectric and magnetostrictive transducers, but with limited scope of applications. Ultrasonic whistles are of two types, the cavity resonator, used mainly for gases, and the wedge resonator, employed for both gases and liquids. . 1.4.1. Cavity Resonators Galton whistle (see Figure 3.12) consists of a cylinder terminated by the end-surface of a piston which can be adjusted to provide resonance at the required frequency The fluid, flows through an annular slit at high speed and strikes the rim of the tube where vortices appear and produce edge-tones. The frequency of the edge-tones depends on the velocity of the fluid which can be adjusted until the cavity resonates. For air, at a frequency of 20 kHz, fundamental resonance takes place for a cavity length of approximately 4 mm. The second type of cavity resonator is the Hartmann generator, similar in design to the Galton whistle, except that the annular slit is replaced by a conical nozzle (see Figure 3.13). The fluid is forced through the nozzle and emerges at a supersonic velocity to produce shock waves, which cause the cavity to be excited at a high intensity. Resonance is achieved by adjusting the fluid velocity. 1.4.2. Wedge Resonator The wedge resonator consists of a rectangular plate with wedge-shaped edges, mounted on nodal supports and placed in a fluid jet stream.(Figure 3.14). The wedge is set up into flexural vibrations having an intensity comparable with that attained by the Hartmann generator. Operating frequencies are of the order of 20 kHz. Sirens also are used for generating high-energy ultrasound in fluids. The siren consists of a rotor disc with a number of identical holes spaced evenly around the circumference of a circle slightly smaller than the disc. The rotor turns concentrically in front of a similar disc (the stator), which is kept at rest whilst fluid jets are directed through the holes. The frequency of the emitted ultrasound is equal to the frequency of interruption of the jet flow, as the holes move relatively to one another, and is calculated as the product of the number of holes in the rotor and the speed of revolution. The tone emitted by the siren is not a pure one but this is unimportant for the applications for which it is used. One advantage of this instrument is that by altering the speed of rotation the frequency can be varied in a continuous manner. The use of mechanical receivers has been restricted to measurements of intensities in liquids and gases. The two principal types of mechanical receivers are the Rayleigh disc and the radiometer. The Rayleigh disc consists of a thin circular disc suspended vertically in the ultrasonic field by means of a torsion fibre. Initially the disc is positioned, with its plane surfaces parallel with the direction of propagation. In the presence of ultrasound, the sound waves exert a couple on the disc, which rotates until brought to rest in a steady position as a result of an opposing couple exerted by the suspension. The angle of rotation required to reach the state of equilibrium depends on the the acoustic intensity. A radiometer is a device which measures directly the pressure of radiation, a quantity which is proportional to the acoustic intensity. The simplest form of radiometer is a tiny solid sphere suspended in the sound field. It is deflected horizontally in the direction of propagation when the ultrasound is present. The device is calibrated by subjecting it to known fluid pressures and then measuring the resulting displacements. The torsion balance radiometer is designed for waves travelling in a horizontal direction and the common balance type for vertically directed waves(Fig 3.15 a and Fig 3.15b) 1.5 Electromagentic Transducers A lightweight electromagnetic transducers have been used for low-intensity ultrasonic measurements in poorly conducting solids and liquids. But the method requires constant application of a steady magnetic field m which is a major disadvantage 1.5.1. Giacominis method: A bar of poorly conducting solid is coated with a thin conducting strip of negligible mass over opposite halves of the upper and lower surfaces and the end-face. It is supported horizontally at the nodal positions by electrically conducting wires, and the coated end is subjected to a horizontal magnetic field at right angles to the axis. When an alternating current is passed through the conducting strip, the bar vibrates longitudinally, in accordance with Flemings left-hand rule of electromagnetism. Because electromagnetic transducers are reversible, vibrations in the bar are picked up by the conducting strip which, in the presence of a steady magnetic field, will have induced in it an alternating e.m.f. in accordance with Flemings right-hand rule of electromagnetism. This e.m.f. is related to the acoustic intensity. Thus the device can be used as both a transmitter and a receiver of ultrasound. 1.5.2. Filipczynskis Method: An aluminium film in the form of a continuous and winding narrow strip is evaporated on to a perspex block to provide a coil of negligible mass. The block is then immersed in the liquid and located inside a gap between the pole-pieces of a permanent magnet which supplies a steady magnetic field of high intensity. Ultrasonic waves pass from the liquid into the block, giving rise to oscillations of the aluminium coil which induce in it an e.m.f. related to the intensity in the block. 1.6 Electrostatic transducers An electrostatic transducer consists essentially of two parallel plates of a conducting material placed close to one another to form an electrical capacitor. One plate is fixed and the other is free to vibrate in a direction at right angles to the surface of the plates. A high resistance is placed in series with the capacitor and steady charges on the plates maintained by a direct potential difference of several hundred volts (Fig 3.18). For operation as a transmitter, a signal at the desired frequency, is fed to the plates , output voltage of amplitude not exceeding the direct potential difference. The periodic variation of the charges induces vibrations of the movable plate. For use as a receiver, the movable plate is placed in position to receive the sound waves and its consequent vibrations give rise to periodic variations of the electrical capacitance of the transducer, producing an alternating current which flows through the high resistance; the resulting alternating voltage proportional the intensity of the received sound. The electrostatic transducer in the form of the condenser microphone has long been used at audible frequencies. Diaphragm being light , inertial effects are negligible and the sensitivity remains constant over a wide frequency range. It can be used for gases and liquids as both a receiver and a transmitter at frequencies of up to about 300 kHz. 1.7 Miscellaneous Transducer Other methods of generating and receiving ultrasound involve the uses of thermal, chemical, and optical devices. The chemical changes observed in materials irradiated with ultrasound, is used as a means of detection. It is also possible to generate ultrasonic waves in a transparent medium by the crossing of two laser beams originating from a common source. There are a number of applications which make use of thermal transducers. One thermal type of transmitter is the spark-gap generator, which radiates ultrasound as a result of periodic temperature changes taking place when a high alternating voltage of a given frequency is discharged across a gap in a circuit. The hot-wire microphone, is a receiving thermal transducer,consisting of a thin wire, made from platinum and heated to just below redness. When sound waves strike the wire, it cools down by an amount directly dependent on the intensity. This is indicated by a decrease in its electrical resistance. The hot-wire microphone has been used successfully for gases at frequencies of up to 600 kHz. Ultrasonic intensities can also be measured from the rise in temperature within the beam, as shown in Figure 3.19. The heat produced by the ultrasound is absorbed by the liquid in the thermally insulated flask. Expansion of the liquid results in a rise in the level of the liquid in the graduated capillary tube, calibrated by supplying a measured amount of heat from the heating coil. The waves transmitted through the liquid are finally absorbed by the glass wool placed at the end of the vessel. Acoustic powers of from 50 mW to 30 W can be measured to an accuracy of better than 10 per cent with this device.